Yang harus Pertama dilakukan :
1. buka alamat situs : http://www.co.cc
2. click "create an account now" atau pada bagian lain masukkan nama domain yang ingin kita buat. contohnya domain punya kelompok gw : www.myfreestreaming.co.cc dan setelah itu klik check availability.
3. jika domain yang ingin kita buat tersedia maka akan ada tulisan :
www.myfreestreaming.co.cc is available
www.myfreestreaming.cc.cc : WebStore
• One year domain registration for $0
• Full DNS control and domain management
4. jika domain yang ada masukkan namanya menggunakan kombinasi antara huruf dan kata biasanya akan muncul keterangan :
contoh : www.l0v3.co.cc
www.l0v3.co.cc is available
www.l0v3.cc.cc : WebStore
• One year domain registration for $3
• Full DNS control and domain management
5. jika domain yang ingin kita buat sudah tersedia maka akan muncul pesan seperti :
contoh : www.myfreestreaming.co.cc
www.myfreestreaming.co.cc is already registered
6. langkah selanjutnya stelah nama domain yang kita buat belum tersedia, pada form selanjutnya klik "continue to registration"
7. lalu masukkan nama email, password, dan masukan veryfing code untuk proses registrasi lebih lanjut.
8. setelah berhasil,maka anda akan mendapatkan pesan sebagai berikut :
Your new domain has been successfully registered.
To ...
We have received your request for domain name registration.
www.samplecompress.co.cc
www.samplecompress.cc.cc : WebStore
Please set up the domain in 48 hours.If not, we will cancel the registration.
(Domain Settings -> Manage Domain -> Select your domain -> Set Up)
9. lalu klik "Set Up"
10. pada halaman domain setting, kita disini bisa melakukan setting/set up pada domain yang akan kita buat. dan bisa melihat masa berlaku domain kita (biasanya sih 1 tahun). pada menu manage domain, klik atau pilih nama domain yang akan kita buat. lalu klik set up.
11. selanjutnya pada menu set up terdapat 3 pilihan yaitu : Name Server, Zone Record, dan Url Forwarding. disini kita hanya perlu mengisi pilihan pertama yaitu Name Server. karena kita belum membuat webhostingnya, kita akan buat terlebih dahulu.
go to : http://www.000webhost.com
(bisa menggunakan webhosting yang lain seperti awardspace.com)
12. lakukan proses pendaftaran dengan mengklik Sign Up
13. pada form pendaftaran, masukkan nama domain yang telah kita buat dan isi bagian2 lain untuk memnuhi syarat pendaftaran webhosting.
note : buat password menggunakan kombinasi huruf dan angka.
14. setelah selesai...ya tidur deh...hahah bercanda...setelah selesai,kita berada dalam menu account list. eitss belum selesai nih...karena kita menggunakan webhost gratis, kita harus menunggu 24 jam setelah pendaftaran agar webhosting kita di aktifkan...jika belum maka pada menu account status akan ada pemberitahuan bahwa account sedang dalam proses.
15. nah setelah menunggu selama 24 hari, kembali lagi ke http://www.000webhost.com lalu pilih member area,lakukan proses Sign in untuk masuk kedalam account kita. seperti biasa isi dengan nama email kita, password, dan kode verifikasi.
16. setelah itu akan ada pemberitahuan dari pihak webhosting-nya bahwa webhosting kita telah aktif. dengan cara, kita cek aja email kita (email yang digunakan pada saat daftar pada webhost ini). cek di inbox email kita, disitu ada pesan dari 000webhost, baca aja dan klik link yang dikasih sama pihak webhostnya untuk mengaktifkan account n webhosting kita.
17. setelah itu akan ada pemberitahuan oleh pihak webhostnya, domain yang kita buat harus dimasukkan "ns01.000webhost.com" dan "ns02.000webhost.com" (tanpa tanda kutip 2).
18. buka lagi domain di http://www.co.cc
lakukan sign in, setelah itu pada domain setting, klik domain yang akan diubah settibg-nya lalu klik pilihan pertama yaitu Name server.pada name server akan ada kolom seperti ini :
Name server 1 :
Name server 2 :
isi menjadi
Name server 1 : ns01.000webhost.com
Name server 2 : ns02.000webhost.com
(note : cukup 2 aja diisi name servernya)
lalu klik set up.
19. setelah selesai, seperti biasa karena ini domain gratis, kita tunggu domain selama 2 x 24 jam setelah pemasukkan name server agar aktif.
20. setelah 2 x 24 jam, coba cek domain yang telah anda buat.
contoh : http://www.myfreestreaming.co.cc
disitu akan ada sebuah file dengan nama public_html folder. hapus saja nanti pada saat kita ingin upload berkas2 file untuk website kita pada webhosting kita. dengan cara setelah sign in dan berhasil, klik Cpanel. pada Cpanel kita dapat me manage website kita seperti pembuatan database dan sebagainya.
NB : THANKS to Johan's Pratama 4IA12 For Information
Senin, 02 November 2009
Rabu, 21 Oktober 2009
Masalah yang biasa terjadi pada jaringan security beserta cara menanggulanginya
Masalah Jaringan Lambat
Apa Saja Faktor Yang Bisa Memberikan Kontribusi Terhadap Masalah Lambatnya Jaringan Dan Bagaimana Memperbaikinya Performanya?
Dalam suatu infrastructure jaringan yang sangat besar, suatu jaringan yang efficient adalah suatu keharusan. Jika design infrastructure jaringan kita tidak efficient, maka applikasi atau akses ke resource jaringanpun menjadi sangat tidak efficient dan terasa sangat lambat. Performa jaringan yang sangat lambat ini biasanya disebabkan oleh congestion jaringan (banjir paket pada jaringan), dimana traffic data melebihi dari kapasitas bandwidth yang ada sekarang. Kalau boleh diibaratkan seperti jalanan ibukota pada jam sibuk, kapasitas jalan tidak mencukupi dengan berjubelnya jumlah kendaraan yang memadati jalanan, akibatnya adalah kemacetan yang luar biasa. Kalau pada hari libur maka jalanan terasa lengang dan anda bisa memacu kendaraan dengan cepat.
Apa saja faktor yang bisa memberikan kontribusi lambatnya jaringan dan bagaimana memperbaikinya?
Collision
Technology Ethernet yang sudah using seperti 10 Base2; 10Base5; dan 10Base-T, mereka menggunakan algoritma CSMA/CD yang menjadi sangat tidak efficient pada beban yang lebih tinggi. Performa jaringan ini akan menjadi turun drastis jika prosentase utilisasinya mencapai lebih dari 30% yang membuat jaringan menjadi sangat lambat.
Istilah collision domain mendefinisikan sekumpulan perangkat jaringan dimana data frame mereka bisa saling bertabrakan. Semua piranti yang disebut diatas menggunakan hub yang berresiko collisions antar frame yang dikirim, sehingga semua piranti dari jenis jaringan Ethernet ini berada pada collision domain yang sama.
Bagaimana solusi menghilangkan collision domain dan algoritma CSMA/CD yang bisa membuat jaringan anda lambat, adalah mengganti jaringan HUB anda dengan Switch LAN. Switch tidak menggunakan BUS secara ber-sama2 seperti HUB, akan tetapi memperlakukan setiap port tunggal sebagai sebuah BUS terpisah sehingga tidak mungkin terjadi tabrakan.
Switches menggunakan buffer memori juga untuk menahan frame yang datang, sehingga jika ada dua piranti yang mengirim frame pada saat yang bersamaan, Switch akan melewatkan satu frame sementara frame satunya lagi ditahan didalam memory buffer menunggu giliran frame pertama selesai dilewatkan. Mengganti semua HUB anda dengan Switch akan meningkatkan kinerja dan performa jaringan anda dan kelambatan jaringan akan berkurang secara significant.
Bottlenecks
Beban user yang sangat tinggi untuk mengakses jaringan akan menyebabkan bottleneck jaringan yang mengarah pada kelambatan jaringan. Aplikasi yang memakan bandwidth yang sangat tinggi seperti aplikasi video dapat menyumbangkan suatu kelambatan jaringan yang sangat significant karena seringnya mengakibatkan system jaringan menjadi bottleneck.
Anda perlu mengidentifikasikan aplikasi (khususnya aplikasi yang dengan beban tinggi) yang hanya diakses oleh satu departemen saja, dan letakkan server pada Switch yang sama dengan user yang mengaksesnya. Meletakkan resource jaringan yang sering diakses pada tempat yang dekat dengan pemakainya akan memperbaiki kinerja dan performa jaringan dan juga response time.
Performa LAN juga bisa diperbaiki dengan menggunakan link backbone Gigabit dan juga Switch yang mempunyai performa tinggi. Jika system jaringan menggunakan beberapa segment, maka penggunaan Switch layer 3 akan dapat menghasilkan jaringan yang berfungsi pada mendekati kecepatan kabel dengan latensi minimum dan secara significant mengurangi jaringan yang lambat.
Serangan Trojan Virus
Jika environment jaringan anda terinfeksi dengan Trojan virus yang menyebabkan system anda dibanjiri oleh program-2 berbahaya (malicious programs), maka jaringan akan mengalami suatu congestion yang mengarah pada kelambatan system jaringan anda, dan terkadang bisa menghentikan layanan jaringan.
Anda memerlukan proteksi jaringan yang sangat kuat untuk melindungi dari serangan Trojan virus dan berbagai macam serangan jaringan lainnya. Software antivirus yang di install terpusat pada server anti-virus yang bisa mendistribusikan data signature secara automatis kepada client setidaknya akan memberikan peringatan dini kepada clients. Dan jika ingin mendapatkan perlindungan yang sangat solid dan proaktif maka Software keamanan jaringan corporate BitDefender adalah solusi anda.
BitDefender Corporate Security adalah solusi manajemen dan keamanan bisnis yang sangat tangguh dan mudah digunakan yang bisa memberikan perlindungan secara proaktif terhadap serangan viruses, spyware, rootkits, spam, phising, dan malware lainnya.
BitDefender Corporate Security menaikkan produktifitas bisnis dan mengurangi biaya akibat malware dan lainnya dengan cara memusatkan administrasi, proteksi, dan kendali workstation, sekaligus juga file-file, email, dan traffic Internet didalam jaringan corporate anda. Kunjungi Bitdefender untuk lebih jelasnya.
WSUS diagram pada jaringan komputer
Jika corporate anda menggunakan jaringan Windows, maka penggunaan WSUS (Windows System Update Services) adalah suatu keharusan. WSUS secara automatis meng-update patches critical Windows anda, security patches, dan Windows critical update kepada clients pada saat dirilis update dari Microsoft. Clients anda tidak perlu update langsung ke internet, cukup koneksi ke server WSUS, sehingga mengurangi beban bandwidth internet anda, karena hanya server WSUS saja yang terhubung ke internet untuk download updates.
Virus biasanya menyerang adanya kelemahan system yang sudah diketahui, dan Windows update akan melakukan patch vulnerability (menambal lobang titik lemah) sehingga menjaga kemungkinan serangan terhadap lobang kelemahan system ini.
Berjaga-jaga terhadap serangan virus yang menyebabkan lambatnya jaringan anda adalah jauh lebih baik terhadap organisasi anda. Dan regulasi dan kebijakan masalah pemakaian Email dan juga kebijakan pemakaian Internet sangat mebantu dalam hal ini.
Lambat jaringan waktu proses authentication
Jika dalam corporate anda mempunyai banyak site yang di link bersama dan setiap site / cabang dan kantor pusat di konfigurasikan sebagai active directory site terpisah dan domain controller di integrasikan dengan DNS server, disaat peak hours jam sibuk user pada kantor cabang sering mengalami proses logon yang lambat sekali bahkan time-out. Hal ini akibat dari masalah bottleneck saat komunikasi interlink lewat koneksi WAN link yang menjurus lambatnya system.
Universal Group Membership Caching pada link lambat
Saat user logon ke jaringan, Global Catalog memberikan informasi Universal Group membership account tersebut kepada domain controller yang sedang memproses informasi logon tersebut. jika Global Catalog tidak tersedia, saat user melakukan inisiasi proses logon, user hanya akan bisa logon kepada local machine saja, terkecuali jika di site tersebut domain controllernya di configure untuk Cache Universal Group membership di setiap kantor cabang. Bisa saja sich domain controller di masing-masing cabang di promote Global Catalog, akan tetapi waspadai juga replikasinya yang bisa menyebabkan link WAN menjadi lambat. Anda bisa mengatur frequensi replikasi menghindari jam sibuk jika memungkinkan.
Dengan meng-enable Universal Group Membership Caching disetiap cabang, akan menyelesaikan masalah kelambatan jaringan jenis ini.
Satu lagi masalah konfigurasi Switch redundance link yang bisa mengakibatkan Broadcast Storm – atau bridging loop, sudah dibahas pada artikel STP.
Apa Saja Faktor Yang Bisa Memberikan Kontribusi Terhadap Masalah Lambatnya Jaringan Dan Bagaimana Memperbaikinya Performanya?
Dalam suatu infrastructure jaringan yang sangat besar, suatu jaringan yang efficient adalah suatu keharusan. Jika design infrastructure jaringan kita tidak efficient, maka applikasi atau akses ke resource jaringanpun menjadi sangat tidak efficient dan terasa sangat lambat. Performa jaringan yang sangat lambat ini biasanya disebabkan oleh congestion jaringan (banjir paket pada jaringan), dimana traffic data melebihi dari kapasitas bandwidth yang ada sekarang. Kalau boleh diibaratkan seperti jalanan ibukota pada jam sibuk, kapasitas jalan tidak mencukupi dengan berjubelnya jumlah kendaraan yang memadati jalanan, akibatnya adalah kemacetan yang luar biasa. Kalau pada hari libur maka jalanan terasa lengang dan anda bisa memacu kendaraan dengan cepat.
Apa saja faktor yang bisa memberikan kontribusi lambatnya jaringan dan bagaimana memperbaikinya?
Collision
Technology Ethernet yang sudah using seperti 10 Base2; 10Base5; dan 10Base-T, mereka menggunakan algoritma CSMA/CD yang menjadi sangat tidak efficient pada beban yang lebih tinggi. Performa jaringan ini akan menjadi turun drastis jika prosentase utilisasinya mencapai lebih dari 30% yang membuat jaringan menjadi sangat lambat.
Istilah collision domain mendefinisikan sekumpulan perangkat jaringan dimana data frame mereka bisa saling bertabrakan. Semua piranti yang disebut diatas menggunakan hub yang berresiko collisions antar frame yang dikirim, sehingga semua piranti dari jenis jaringan Ethernet ini berada pada collision domain yang sama.
Bagaimana solusi menghilangkan collision domain dan algoritma CSMA/CD yang bisa membuat jaringan anda lambat, adalah mengganti jaringan HUB anda dengan Switch LAN. Switch tidak menggunakan BUS secara ber-sama2 seperti HUB, akan tetapi memperlakukan setiap port tunggal sebagai sebuah BUS terpisah sehingga tidak mungkin terjadi tabrakan.
Switches menggunakan buffer memori juga untuk menahan frame yang datang, sehingga jika ada dua piranti yang mengirim frame pada saat yang bersamaan, Switch akan melewatkan satu frame sementara frame satunya lagi ditahan didalam memory buffer menunggu giliran frame pertama selesai dilewatkan. Mengganti semua HUB anda dengan Switch akan meningkatkan kinerja dan performa jaringan anda dan kelambatan jaringan akan berkurang secara significant.
Bottlenecks
Beban user yang sangat tinggi untuk mengakses jaringan akan menyebabkan bottleneck jaringan yang mengarah pada kelambatan jaringan. Aplikasi yang memakan bandwidth yang sangat tinggi seperti aplikasi video dapat menyumbangkan suatu kelambatan jaringan yang sangat significant karena seringnya mengakibatkan system jaringan menjadi bottleneck.
Anda perlu mengidentifikasikan aplikasi (khususnya aplikasi yang dengan beban tinggi) yang hanya diakses oleh satu departemen saja, dan letakkan server pada Switch yang sama dengan user yang mengaksesnya. Meletakkan resource jaringan yang sering diakses pada tempat yang dekat dengan pemakainya akan memperbaiki kinerja dan performa jaringan dan juga response time.
Performa LAN juga bisa diperbaiki dengan menggunakan link backbone Gigabit dan juga Switch yang mempunyai performa tinggi. Jika system jaringan menggunakan beberapa segment, maka penggunaan Switch layer 3 akan dapat menghasilkan jaringan yang berfungsi pada mendekati kecepatan kabel dengan latensi minimum dan secara significant mengurangi jaringan yang lambat.
Serangan Trojan Virus
Jika environment jaringan anda terinfeksi dengan Trojan virus yang menyebabkan system anda dibanjiri oleh program-2 berbahaya (malicious programs), maka jaringan akan mengalami suatu congestion yang mengarah pada kelambatan system jaringan anda, dan terkadang bisa menghentikan layanan jaringan.
Anda memerlukan proteksi jaringan yang sangat kuat untuk melindungi dari serangan Trojan virus dan berbagai macam serangan jaringan lainnya. Software antivirus yang di install terpusat pada server anti-virus yang bisa mendistribusikan data signature secara automatis kepada client setidaknya akan memberikan peringatan dini kepada clients. Dan jika ingin mendapatkan perlindungan yang sangat solid dan proaktif maka Software keamanan jaringan corporate BitDefender adalah solusi anda.
BitDefender Corporate Security adalah solusi manajemen dan keamanan bisnis yang sangat tangguh dan mudah digunakan yang bisa memberikan perlindungan secara proaktif terhadap serangan viruses, spyware, rootkits, spam, phising, dan malware lainnya.
BitDefender Corporate Security menaikkan produktifitas bisnis dan mengurangi biaya akibat malware dan lainnya dengan cara memusatkan administrasi, proteksi, dan kendali workstation, sekaligus juga file-file, email, dan traffic Internet didalam jaringan corporate anda. Kunjungi Bitdefender untuk lebih jelasnya.
WSUS diagram pada jaringan komputer
Jika corporate anda menggunakan jaringan Windows, maka penggunaan WSUS (Windows System Update Services) adalah suatu keharusan. WSUS secara automatis meng-update patches critical Windows anda, security patches, dan Windows critical update kepada clients pada saat dirilis update dari Microsoft. Clients anda tidak perlu update langsung ke internet, cukup koneksi ke server WSUS, sehingga mengurangi beban bandwidth internet anda, karena hanya server WSUS saja yang terhubung ke internet untuk download updates.
Virus biasanya menyerang adanya kelemahan system yang sudah diketahui, dan Windows update akan melakukan patch vulnerability (menambal lobang titik lemah) sehingga menjaga kemungkinan serangan terhadap lobang kelemahan system ini.
Berjaga-jaga terhadap serangan virus yang menyebabkan lambatnya jaringan anda adalah jauh lebih baik terhadap organisasi anda. Dan regulasi dan kebijakan masalah pemakaian Email dan juga kebijakan pemakaian Internet sangat mebantu dalam hal ini.
Lambat jaringan waktu proses authentication
Jika dalam corporate anda mempunyai banyak site yang di link bersama dan setiap site / cabang dan kantor pusat di konfigurasikan sebagai active directory site terpisah dan domain controller di integrasikan dengan DNS server, disaat peak hours jam sibuk user pada kantor cabang sering mengalami proses logon yang lambat sekali bahkan time-out. Hal ini akibat dari masalah bottleneck saat komunikasi interlink lewat koneksi WAN link yang menjurus lambatnya system.
Universal Group Membership Caching pada link lambat
Saat user logon ke jaringan, Global Catalog memberikan informasi Universal Group membership account tersebut kepada domain controller yang sedang memproses informasi logon tersebut. jika Global Catalog tidak tersedia, saat user melakukan inisiasi proses logon, user hanya akan bisa logon kepada local machine saja, terkecuali jika di site tersebut domain controllernya di configure untuk Cache Universal Group membership di setiap kantor cabang. Bisa saja sich domain controller di masing-masing cabang di promote Global Catalog, akan tetapi waspadai juga replikasinya yang bisa menyebabkan link WAN menjadi lambat. Anda bisa mengatur frequensi replikasi menghindari jam sibuk jika memungkinkan.
Dengan meng-enable Universal Group Membership Caching disetiap cabang, akan menyelesaikan masalah kelambatan jaringan jenis ini.
Satu lagi masalah konfigurasi Switch redundance link yang bisa mengakibatkan Broadcast Storm – atau bridging loop, sudah dibahas pada artikel STP.
Jumat, 16 Oktober 2009
14 Hacker Yang di Pandang
Hacker adalah orang yang mempelajari, menganalisa, dan selanjutnya bila menginginkan, bisa membuat, memodifikasi, atau bahkan mengeksploitasi sistem yang terdapat di sebuah perangkat seperti perangkat lunak komputer dan perangkat keras komputer seperti program komputer, administrasi dan hal-hal lainnya , terutama keamanan.
Berikut beberapa profile 14 Hacker Terbaik Dunia untuk saat ini :
1. Kevin Mitnick
Kevin adalah hacker pertama yang wajahnya terpampang dalam poster “FBI Most Wanted”.Kevin juga seorang “Master of Deception” dan telah menulis buku yang berjudul “The Art of Deception”.Buku ini menjelaskan berbagai teknik social engineering untuk mendapatkan akses ke dalam sistem.
2. Linus Torvalds
Seorang hacker sejati, mengembangkan sistem operasi Linux yang merupakan gabungan dari “LINUS MINIX”.Sistem operasi Linux telah menjadi sistem operasi “standar” hacker.Bersama Richard Stallman dengan GNU-nya membangun Linux versi awal dan berkolaborasi dengan programmer, developper dan hacker seluruh dunia untuk mengembangkan kernel Linux.
3. John Draper
Penemu nada tunggal 2600 Herz menggunakan peluit plastik yang merupakan hadiah dari kotak sereal.Merupakan pelopor penggunaan nada 2600 Hz dan dikenal sebagai Phone Phreaker (Phreaker, baca: frieker)Nada 2600 Hz digunakan sebagai alat untuk melakukan pemanggilan telepon gratis.Pada pengembangannya, nada 2600 Hz tidak lagi dibuat dengan peluit plastik, melainkan menggunakan alat yang disebut “Blue Box”.
4. Mark Abene
Sebagai salah seorang “Master of Deception” phiber optik, menginspirasikan ribuan remaja untuk mempelajari sistem internal telepon negara. Phiber optik juga dinobatkan sebagai salah seorang dari 100 orang jenius oleh New York Magazine.
Menggunakan komputer Apple , Timex Sinclair dan Commodore 64.
Komputer pertamanya adalah Radio Shack TRS-80 (trash-80).
5. Robert Morris
Seorang anak dari ilmuwan National Computer Security Center yang merupakan bagian dari National Security Agencies (NSA).
Pertama kali menulis Internet Worm yang begitu momental pada tahun 1988.
Meng-infeksi ribuan komputer yang terhubung dalam jaringan.
6. Richard Stallman
Salah seorang “Old School Hacker”, bekerja pada lab Artificial Intelligence MIT.Merasa terganggu oleh software komersial dan dan hak cipta pribadi.Akhirnya mendirikan GNU (baca: guhNew) yang merupakan singkatan dari GNU NOT UNIX.Menggunakan komputer pertama sekali pada tahun 1969 di IBM New York Scintific Center saat berumur 16 tahun.
7. Kevin Poulsen
Melakukan penipuan digital terhadap stasiun radio KIIS-FM, memastikan bahwa ia adalah penelpon ke 102 dan memenangkan porsche 944 S2.
8. Ian Murphy
Ian Muphy bersama 3 orang rekannya, melakukan hacking ke dalam komputer AT&T dan menggubah seting jam internal-nya.Hal ini mengakibatkan masyarakat pengguna telfon mendapatkan diskon “tengah malam” pada saat sore hari, dan yang telah menunggu hingga tengah malam harus membayar dengan tagihan yang tinggi.
9. Vladimir Levin
Lulusan St. Petersburg Tekhnologichesky University.Menipu komputer CitiBank dan meraup keuntungan 10 juta dollar.Ditangkap Interpol di Heathrow Airport pada tahun 1995
10. Steve Wozniak
Membangun komputer Apple dan menggunakan “blue box” untukkepentingan sendiri.
11. Tsutomu Shimomura
Berhasil menangkap jejak Kevin Mitnick.
12. Dennis Ritchie dan Ken Thomson
Dennis Ritchie adalah seorang penulis bahasa C, bersama Ken Thomson menulis sistem operasi UNIX yang elegan.
13. Eric Steven Raymond
Bapak hacker. Seorang hacktivist dan pelopor opensource movement.Menulis banyak panduan hacking, salah satunya adalah: “How To Become A Hacker” dan “The new hacker’s Dictionary”.
Begitu fenomenal dan dikenal oleh seluruh masyarakat hacking dunia.Menurut Eric, “dunia mempunyai banyak persoalan menarik danmenanti untuk dipecahkan”.
14. Johan Helsingius
Mengoperasikan anonymous remailer paling populer didunia.
Berikut beberapa profile 14 Hacker Terbaik Dunia untuk saat ini :
1. Kevin Mitnick
Kevin adalah hacker pertama yang wajahnya terpampang dalam poster “FBI Most Wanted”.Kevin juga seorang “Master of Deception” dan telah menulis buku yang berjudul “The Art of Deception”.Buku ini menjelaskan berbagai teknik social engineering untuk mendapatkan akses ke dalam sistem.
2. Linus Torvalds
Seorang hacker sejati, mengembangkan sistem operasi Linux yang merupakan gabungan dari “LINUS MINIX”.Sistem operasi Linux telah menjadi sistem operasi “standar” hacker.Bersama Richard Stallman dengan GNU-nya membangun Linux versi awal dan berkolaborasi dengan programmer, developper dan hacker seluruh dunia untuk mengembangkan kernel Linux.
3. John Draper
Penemu nada tunggal 2600 Herz menggunakan peluit plastik yang merupakan hadiah dari kotak sereal.Merupakan pelopor penggunaan nada 2600 Hz dan dikenal sebagai Phone Phreaker (Phreaker, baca: frieker)Nada 2600 Hz digunakan sebagai alat untuk melakukan pemanggilan telepon gratis.Pada pengembangannya, nada 2600 Hz tidak lagi dibuat dengan peluit plastik, melainkan menggunakan alat yang disebut “Blue Box”.
4. Mark Abene
Sebagai salah seorang “Master of Deception” phiber optik, menginspirasikan ribuan remaja untuk mempelajari sistem internal telepon negara. Phiber optik juga dinobatkan sebagai salah seorang dari 100 orang jenius oleh New York Magazine.
Menggunakan komputer Apple , Timex Sinclair dan Commodore 64.
Komputer pertamanya adalah Radio Shack TRS-80 (trash-80).
5. Robert Morris
Seorang anak dari ilmuwan National Computer Security Center yang merupakan bagian dari National Security Agencies (NSA).
Pertama kali menulis Internet Worm yang begitu momental pada tahun 1988.
Meng-infeksi ribuan komputer yang terhubung dalam jaringan.
6. Richard Stallman
Salah seorang “Old School Hacker”, bekerja pada lab Artificial Intelligence MIT.Merasa terganggu oleh software komersial dan dan hak cipta pribadi.Akhirnya mendirikan GNU (baca: guhNew) yang merupakan singkatan dari GNU NOT UNIX.Menggunakan komputer pertama sekali pada tahun 1969 di IBM New York Scintific Center saat berumur 16 tahun.
7. Kevin Poulsen
Melakukan penipuan digital terhadap stasiun radio KIIS-FM, memastikan bahwa ia adalah penelpon ke 102 dan memenangkan porsche 944 S2.
8. Ian Murphy
Ian Muphy bersama 3 orang rekannya, melakukan hacking ke dalam komputer AT&T dan menggubah seting jam internal-nya.Hal ini mengakibatkan masyarakat pengguna telfon mendapatkan diskon “tengah malam” pada saat sore hari, dan yang telah menunggu hingga tengah malam harus membayar dengan tagihan yang tinggi.
9. Vladimir Levin
Lulusan St. Petersburg Tekhnologichesky University.Menipu komputer CitiBank dan meraup keuntungan 10 juta dollar.Ditangkap Interpol di Heathrow Airport pada tahun 1995
10. Steve Wozniak
Membangun komputer Apple dan menggunakan “blue box” untukkepentingan sendiri.
11. Tsutomu Shimomura
Berhasil menangkap jejak Kevin Mitnick.
12. Dennis Ritchie dan Ken Thomson
Dennis Ritchie adalah seorang penulis bahasa C, bersama Ken Thomson menulis sistem operasi UNIX yang elegan.
13. Eric Steven Raymond
Bapak hacker. Seorang hacktivist dan pelopor opensource movement.Menulis banyak panduan hacking, salah satunya adalah: “How To Become A Hacker” dan “The new hacker’s Dictionary”.
Begitu fenomenal dan dikenal oleh seluruh masyarakat hacking dunia.Menurut Eric, “dunia mempunyai banyak persoalan menarik danmenanti untuk dipecahkan”.
14. Johan Helsingius
Mengoperasikan anonymous remailer paling populer didunia.
Rabu, 14 Oktober 2009
Implementasi real-time transport protocol menggunakan teknologi Tekan untuk bicara
(bahasa inggris: push to talk) adalah teknologi yang ada di dalam telepon seluler beroperasi layaknya walkie-talkie dan berada didalam jaringan seluler. Komunikasi yang terjalin dua arah, terjadi pada waktu yang sesungguhnya, bersifat one-to-one (satu orang kepada satu orang) atau one-to many (satu orang pada banyak orang) komunikator. Komunikasinya bersifat [[half-duplex]], layaknya walkie talkie, seorang pengguna tidak dapat berbicara dan mendengar (mengirim atau menerima informasi) percakapan, apabila lawan bicaranya sedang mengirim informasi atau berbicara. Hal ini berarti kedua belah pihak tidak dapat berbicara di waktu yang bersamaan (yang satu berbicara dan yang lainnya mendengarkan). Maka dari itu, tekan untuk berbicara juga disebut radio dua arah karena beroperasi seperti radio walkie-talkie. Fitur ini tidak seperti sistem [[full-duplex]] yang ada di dalam komunikasi seluler GSM, dimana kedua pembicara atau banyak pembicara dapat berbicara secara beramaan.
Telepon seluler pada masa sekarang ini telah banyak memberikan tekonologi yang baru, satu diantaranya adalah teknologi tekan untuk berbicara. Namun di Indonesia, teknologi ini belum banyak diadaptasi. Bisa dibilang teknologi ini tidak dipakai.
Sinyal suara percakapan pengguna dikirimkan sebagai paket data melalui jaringan GPRS (IP). Sehingga IP digunakan sebagai pengangkut data atau alat yang mengangkut komunikasi ini. Karena sekarang ini sudah ada fitur 3G dan 3,5G, maka pengiriman data bisa dilakukan lebih cepat dan efisien. Alat yang digunakan dalam fitur ini adalah sebuah tombol yang dapat mengubah telepon seluler sebagai pesawat yang digunakan adalah telepon seluler yang menggunakan jaringan seluler (sehingga ruang lingkup lebih luas).
Cara kerja
Supaya teknologi ini bekerja, awalnya provider yang digunakan harus menyediakan jasa telephone conference, yaitu pembicara dapat mempunyai lawan bicara lebih dari satu orang. Cara penggunaan dari sistem ini yaitu user yang berbicara harus menekan tombol sewaktu ia hendak mengirimkan informasi kepada grup atau lawan bicarannya dan melepas tombol tersebut saat sudah selesai berbicara. Saat tombol tidak ditekan, berarti seluler tersebut berfungsi sebagai pesawat penerima informasi dari grup conference dimana ia tergabung. Pada dasarnya, tekan untuk berbicara bekerja layaknya walkie-talkie, hanya saja pesawat Cara agar grup dapat tergabung yaitu provider akan menggabungkan fitur tekan untuk bicara dengan daftar kontak yang tesrimpan pada seluler atau kartu memori pengguna.
Kelebihan dan kekurangan
Kelebihan
·Pengguna dapat berbicara dengan beberapa orang yang tergabung di dalam grupnya (orangnya dapat ditambah atau dikurangi)
·Tarif cenderung lebih murah ketimbang percakapan biasa (yang menggunakan GSM)
·Tidak perlu membeli handset baru, selama handsetnya menyupport tekan untuk berbicara
·Jaringan tekan untuk berbicara sama halnya dengan jaringan provider selular (jaringannya luas), tidak bisa dihubungi bila tidak mendapat sinyal provider
·Dapat memblokir atau mengeluarkan peserta yang tidak diterima dalam grup tersebut
·Pengguna bisa menyembunyikan nama dan status kehadiran di dalam grup tergabung
Kekurangan
·Grup atau lawan bicara diharuskan dari provider yang sama dan memiliki handset yang menyupport tekan untuk berbicara
·Kemampuan bertukar informasi (berbicara) tidak secepat GSM
·Jaringan yang digunakan adalah IP (GPRS), sehingga kualitas suaranya rendah (tidak sejernih suara pada GSM)
·Karena sistemnya half-duplex, maka sesama pengguna tidak bisa berbicara di waktu yang bersamaan (harus saling menunggu/bergantian)
IMPLEMENTASI
Push to talk
Push to talk (PTT) (layanan jaringan) adalah layanan suara real-time melalui layanan IP yang dijalankan melalui jaringan data paket. Push to talk memberikan komunikasi suara langsung dengan menekan sebuah tombol. Gunakan push to talk untuk berkomunikasi dengan satu orang atau dengan grup tertentu.Sebelum dapat menggunakan push to talk, Anda harus menetapkan jalur akses dan pengaturan push-to-talk. Anda mungkin menerima pengaturan tersebut dalam pesan teks khusus dari operator selular yang menawarkan layanan push-to-talk. Anda juga dapat menggunakan aplikasi Setting wizard untuk konfigurasi jika didukung oleh operator jaringan. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut
mengenai Setting wizard, lihat panduan yang tersedia pada halaman dukungan produk Nokia N77 di www.nokia.co.id/N77/support atau di situs web Nokia
setempat.Tekan , lalu pilih Peralatan > PTT.Dalam komunikasi push-to-talk, satu orang akan berbicara sementara yang lain mendengarkan melalui loudspeaker dalam telepon. Para pembicara akan berbicara bergantian. Karena hanya satu anggota grup yang dapat bicara pada satu waktu, lama maksimal giliran bicara dibatasi. Lama
maksimal tersebut biasanya ditetapkan hingga 30 detik. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang lama giliran bicara pada jaringan Anda, hubungi operator jaringan.Menetapkan jalur akses push-to-talkBanyak operator selular meminta Anda untuk menggunakan jalur akses Internet (IAP) sebagai jalur akses standar Anda. Operator selular lainnya memperbolehkan Anda menggunakan jalur akses WAP. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut, hubungi operator selular Anda.Jika Anda tidak memiliki sambungan WAP, Anda mungkin perlu meminta bantuan operator selular untuk membuat sambungan untuk pertama kali www.nokia.co.id/phonesettings.
Pengaturan push-to-talk
Tekan , lalu pilih Peralatan > PTT> Pilihan> Pengaturan.Pilih Pengaturan pengguna, lalu masukkan informasi berikut:
Panggilan PTT masuk—Pilih Beritahu jika Anda ingin melihat pemberitahuan panggilan masuk.
Pilih Terima
otomatis jika Anda ingin panggilan PTT dijawab secara
otomatis. Pilih Tidak boleh jika Anda ingin panggilan
PTT ditolak secara otomatis.
Nada tanda pgln. PTT—Pilih Diatur oleh profil jika Anda
ingin menyamakan pengaturan untuk push to talk dengan
nada tanda panggilan masuk pada profil yang aktif.
Nada permint. pgl. balik—Pilih nada untuk permintaan
panggilan balik.
Aplikasi dihidupkan—Pilih jika Anda ingin log in ke
layanan push-to-talk setiap kali perangkat dihidupkan.
Telepon seluler pada masa sekarang ini telah banyak memberikan tekonologi yang baru, satu diantaranya adalah teknologi tekan untuk berbicara. Namun di Indonesia, teknologi ini belum banyak diadaptasi. Bisa dibilang teknologi ini tidak dipakai.
Sinyal suara percakapan pengguna dikirimkan sebagai paket data melalui jaringan GPRS (IP). Sehingga IP digunakan sebagai pengangkut data atau alat yang mengangkut komunikasi ini. Karena sekarang ini sudah ada fitur 3G dan 3,5G, maka pengiriman data bisa dilakukan lebih cepat dan efisien. Alat yang digunakan dalam fitur ini adalah sebuah tombol yang dapat mengubah telepon seluler sebagai pesawat yang digunakan adalah telepon seluler yang menggunakan jaringan seluler (sehingga ruang lingkup lebih luas).
Cara kerja
Supaya teknologi ini bekerja, awalnya provider yang digunakan harus menyediakan jasa telephone conference, yaitu pembicara dapat mempunyai lawan bicara lebih dari satu orang. Cara penggunaan dari sistem ini yaitu user yang berbicara harus menekan tombol sewaktu ia hendak mengirimkan informasi kepada grup atau lawan bicarannya dan melepas tombol tersebut saat sudah selesai berbicara. Saat tombol tidak ditekan, berarti seluler tersebut berfungsi sebagai pesawat penerima informasi dari grup conference dimana ia tergabung. Pada dasarnya, tekan untuk berbicara bekerja layaknya walkie-talkie, hanya saja pesawat Cara agar grup dapat tergabung yaitu provider akan menggabungkan fitur tekan untuk bicara dengan daftar kontak yang tesrimpan pada seluler atau kartu memori pengguna.
Kelebihan dan kekurangan
Kelebihan
·Pengguna dapat berbicara dengan beberapa orang yang tergabung di dalam grupnya (orangnya dapat ditambah atau dikurangi)
·Tarif cenderung lebih murah ketimbang percakapan biasa (yang menggunakan GSM)
·Tidak perlu membeli handset baru, selama handsetnya menyupport tekan untuk berbicara
·Jaringan tekan untuk berbicara sama halnya dengan jaringan provider selular (jaringannya luas), tidak bisa dihubungi bila tidak mendapat sinyal provider
·Dapat memblokir atau mengeluarkan peserta yang tidak diterima dalam grup tersebut
·Pengguna bisa menyembunyikan nama dan status kehadiran di dalam grup tergabung
Kekurangan
·Grup atau lawan bicara diharuskan dari provider yang sama dan memiliki handset yang menyupport tekan untuk berbicara
·Kemampuan bertukar informasi (berbicara) tidak secepat GSM
·Jaringan yang digunakan adalah IP (GPRS), sehingga kualitas suaranya rendah (tidak sejernih suara pada GSM)
·Karena sistemnya half-duplex, maka sesama pengguna tidak bisa berbicara di waktu yang bersamaan (harus saling menunggu/bergantian)
IMPLEMENTASI
Push to talk
Push to talk (PTT) (layanan jaringan) adalah layanan suara real-time melalui layanan IP yang dijalankan melalui jaringan data paket. Push to talk memberikan komunikasi suara langsung dengan menekan sebuah tombol. Gunakan push to talk untuk berkomunikasi dengan satu orang atau dengan grup tertentu.Sebelum dapat menggunakan push to talk, Anda harus menetapkan jalur akses dan pengaturan push-to-talk. Anda mungkin menerima pengaturan tersebut dalam pesan teks khusus dari operator selular yang menawarkan layanan push-to-talk. Anda juga dapat menggunakan aplikasi Setting wizard untuk konfigurasi jika didukung oleh operator jaringan. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut
mengenai Setting wizard, lihat panduan yang tersedia pada halaman dukungan produk Nokia N77 di www.nokia.co.id/N77/support atau di situs web Nokia
setempat.Tekan , lalu pilih Peralatan > PTT.Dalam komunikasi push-to-talk, satu orang akan berbicara sementara yang lain mendengarkan melalui loudspeaker dalam telepon. Para pembicara akan berbicara bergantian. Karena hanya satu anggota grup yang dapat bicara pada satu waktu, lama maksimal giliran bicara dibatasi. Lama
maksimal tersebut biasanya ditetapkan hingga 30 detik. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang lama giliran bicara pada jaringan Anda, hubungi operator jaringan.Menetapkan jalur akses push-to-talkBanyak operator selular meminta Anda untuk menggunakan jalur akses Internet (IAP) sebagai jalur akses standar Anda. Operator selular lainnya memperbolehkan Anda menggunakan jalur akses WAP. Untuk informasi lebih lanjut, hubungi operator selular Anda.Jika Anda tidak memiliki sambungan WAP, Anda mungkin perlu meminta bantuan operator selular untuk membuat sambungan untuk pertama kali www.nokia.co.id/phonesettings.
Pengaturan push-to-talk
Tekan , lalu pilih Peralatan > PTT> Pilihan> Pengaturan.Pilih Pengaturan pengguna, lalu masukkan informasi berikut:
Panggilan PTT masuk—Pilih Beritahu jika Anda ingin melihat pemberitahuan panggilan masuk.
Pilih Terima
otomatis jika Anda ingin panggilan PTT dijawab secara
otomatis. Pilih Tidak boleh jika Anda ingin panggilan
PTT ditolak secara otomatis.
Nada tanda pgln. PTT—Pilih Diatur oleh profil jika Anda
ingin menyamakan pengaturan untuk push to talk dengan
nada tanda panggilan masuk pada profil yang aktif.
Nada permint. pgl. balik—Pilih nada untuk permintaan
panggilan balik.
Aplikasi dihidupkan—Pilih jika Anda ingin log in ke
layanan push-to-talk setiap kali perangkat dihidupkan.
Determiners and articels
Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that precede and modify nouns:
the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice
Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English, nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.
Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns (Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.); numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these, those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's life."
This categorization of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.
Some Notes on Quantifiers
Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:
#The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees
#The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:
not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing
#The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing
In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and negative statements:
* Much of the snow has already melted.
* How much snow fell yesterday?
* Not much.
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
* Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
* Most students apply to several colleges.
Authority for this last paragraph: The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. Examples our own.
An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):
* Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
* Many an apple has fallen by October.
This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.
the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice
Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English, nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.
Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns (Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.); numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these, those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's life."
This categorization of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.
Some Notes on Quantifiers
Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:
#The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees
#The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:
not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing
#The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing
In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and negative statements:
* Much of the snow has already melted.
* How much snow fell yesterday?
* Not much.
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
* Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
* Most students apply to several colleges.
Authority for this last paragraph: The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. Examples our own.
An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):
* Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
* Many an apple has fallen by October.
This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.
simple present
Ada beberapa penggunaan dari simple present tense, yaitu :
1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang
2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung
3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.
Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini
1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)
Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.
Dari gambar diatas tanda silang warna biru adalah kejadian yang dilakukan, jadi kejadian tersebut selain dilakukan saat ini (persent) juga dilakukan pada waktu lampau (past) dan yang akan datang (future)
EXAMPLES:
I play tennis.
She does not play tennis.
The train leaves every morning at 8 am.
The train does not leave at 9am.
She always forgets her purse.
He never forgets his wallet.
Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.
The sun does not circle the Earth.
2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations)
Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya
Perhatikan gambar berikut untuk lebih jelasnya
.
EXAMPLES:
Cats like milk.
Birds do not like milk.
Jakarta is in Indonesia
Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.
Windows are made of glass.
Windows are not made of wood.
Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)
3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.
EXAMPLES:
I am here now.
She is not here now.
He needs help right now.
He does not need help now.
He has a car.
1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang
2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung
3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.
Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini
1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)
Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.
Dari gambar diatas tanda silang warna biru adalah kejadian yang dilakukan, jadi kejadian tersebut selain dilakukan saat ini (persent) juga dilakukan pada waktu lampau (past) dan yang akan datang (future)
EXAMPLES:
I play tennis.
She does not play tennis.
The train leaves every morning at 8 am.
The train does not leave at 9am.
She always forgets her purse.
He never forgets his wallet.
Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.
The sun does not circle the Earth.
2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations)
Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya
Perhatikan gambar berikut untuk lebih jelasnya
.
EXAMPLES:
Cats like milk.
Birds do not like milk.
Jakarta is in Indonesia
Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.
Windows are made of glass.
Windows are not made of wood.
Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)
3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.
EXAMPLES:
I am here now.
She is not here now.
He needs help right now.
He does not need help now.
He has a car.
Present simple
English verbs are normally known by infinitives :
ex. to work to speak to go
Positive (Subject + verb)
I work
You work
He
She works
It
We work
You work
They work
Interrogative (DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ SUBJECT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)
Do I work
Do you work
he
Does she work
It
Do we work
Do you work
Do they work
Negative (SUBJECT + DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ NOT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)
I do not (don’t) work
You do not (don’t) work
He
She does not (doesn’t) work
It
We do not (don’t) work
You do not (don’t) work
They do not (don’t) work
ex. to work to speak to go
Positive (Subject + verb)
I work
You work
He
She works
It
We work
You work
They work
Interrogative (DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ SUBJECT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)
Do I work
Do you work
he
Does she work
It
Do we work
Do you work
Do they work
Negative (SUBJECT + DO / DOES[FOR THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR]+ NOT + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)
I do not (don’t) work
You do not (don’t) work
He
She does not (doesn’t) work
It
We do not (don’t) work
You do not (don’t) work
They do not (don’t) work
The articels
The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).
The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:
The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)
If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.
For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.
First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.
A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:
There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.
Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.
* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.
Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club
Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:
* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.
Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.
Principles of Choosing an Article
Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.
Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.
If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.
Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:
* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!
As opposed to. . .
* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?
In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.
The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:
The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)
If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.
For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.
First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.
A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:
There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.
Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.
* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.
Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club
Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:
* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.
Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.
Principles of Choosing an Article
Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.
Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.
If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.
Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:
* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!
As opposed to. . .
* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?
In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.
The articels
The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).
The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:
The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)
If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.
For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.
First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.
A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:
There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.
Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.
* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.
Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club
Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:
* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.
Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.
Principles of Choosing an Article
Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.
Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.
If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.
Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:
* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!
As opposed to. . .
* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?
In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.
The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:
The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.
The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)
If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.
For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.
First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.
A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:
There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.
Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.
* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.
Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club
Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:
* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.
Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.
Principles of Choosing an Article
Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.
Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.
If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.
Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:
* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!
As opposed to. . .
* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?
In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.
other and another
Other, Another and “A Whole Nuther”
So often I hear people use the word “nuther” when they mean “other”. Like in “that’s a whole nuther story.”How did this happen?
First, I don’t think that the word “nuther/nother” is being substituted for the word “other” in this expression. Rather, the word “whole” is being inserted between elements of the word another: a-whole-nother.
It could be jocular usage, or it could be an example of metanalysis:
The reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creation of a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or morphological units.
Our word apron, for example, used to be napron, but speakers hearing the words “a napron” thought they were hearing “an apron.” The same thing happened with auger, adder and umpire. Working in the other direction, what we call “a newt” used to be “an ewt(e).”
Some speakers may try to “correct” a whole nuther story to the ungrammatical a whole other story with the result that the latter may become a common usage.
As to how it happened–
“A whole nuther/nother story” has caught on because people who hear it like it.
It also fits the patterns of English speech. The OED, for example, offers several uses of nother, most of them obsolete, but the word has a long history in the language.
The Old English word oþer meant “a second of two.” The merger of an (one) with other is documented from 1225.
Another is different from the other:
another refers indefinitely to any further member of a series of indeterminate extent.
the other points to the remaining determinate member of a known series of two or more.
I don’t think “a whole nuther” belongs in the speech or writing of news announcers or journalists who have a responsibility to adhere to standard usage, but its informal use in conversation doesn’t pain my grammar nerve.
So often I hear people use the word “nuther” when they mean “other”. Like in “that’s a whole nuther story.”How did this happen?
First, I don’t think that the word “nuther/nother” is being substituted for the word “other” in this expression. Rather, the word “whole” is being inserted between elements of the word another: a-whole-nother.
It could be jocular usage, or it could be an example of metanalysis:
The reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creation of a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or morphological units.
Our word apron, for example, used to be napron, but speakers hearing the words “a napron” thought they were hearing “an apron.” The same thing happened with auger, adder and umpire. Working in the other direction, what we call “a newt” used to be “an ewt(e).”
Some speakers may try to “correct” a whole nuther story to the ungrammatical a whole other story with the result that the latter may become a common usage.
As to how it happened–
“A whole nuther/nother story” has caught on because people who hear it like it.
It also fits the patterns of English speech. The OED, for example, offers several uses of nother, most of them obsolete, but the word has a long history in the language.
The Old English word oþer meant “a second of two.” The merger of an (one) with other is documented from 1225.
Another is different from the other:
another refers indefinitely to any further member of a series of indeterminate extent.
the other points to the remaining determinate member of a known series of two or more.
I don’t think “a whole nuther” belongs in the speech or writing of news announcers or journalists who have a responsibility to adhere to standard usage, but its informal use in conversation doesn’t pain my grammar nerve.
Rabu, 07 Oktober 2009
Other and Another
With Count Nouns
an + other + singular noun (one more)
another pencil
one more pencil the + other + singular man (last of set)
the other pencil
the last pencil present other + plural noun (more of the set)
other pencil
some more pencil the other + plural noun (the rest of these)
the other pencils
all remaining pencils
With Non-Count Nouns
other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
other water : some more water
the other + non-countnoun (all the rest)
the other water : the remaining water
Exercise
1. This pen isn't working please give me another
2. if you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffe
3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the other one
4. He doesn't need those books. He needs the other
5. These are thirty people in the room. Tweenty are from Latin America and the other are from other countries
6. Six people were in the store two were buying meat the other was looking at magazines.
7. This glass of milk is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
8. The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery other was marching, another was at attention, and the other was pradicing combat tactics.
9. These are seven students from Japan other are from Iran and the other from other places.
10.We locked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive, but the others ones were reasonably piced.
an + other + singular noun (one more)
another pencil
one more pencil the + other + singular man (last of set)
the other pencil
the last pencil present other + plural noun (more of the set)
other pencil
some more pencil the other + plural noun (the rest of these)
the other pencils
all remaining pencils
With Non-Count Nouns
other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
other water : some more water
the other + non-countnoun (all the rest)
the other water : the remaining water
Exercise
1. This pen isn't working please give me another
2. if you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffe
3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the other one
4. He doesn't need those books. He needs the other
5. These are thirty people in the room. Tweenty are from Latin America and the other are from other countries
6. Six people were in the store two were buying meat the other was looking at magazines.
7. This glass of milk is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
8. The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery other was marching, another was at attention, and the other was pradicing combat tactics.
9. These are seven students from Japan other are from Iran and the other from other places.
10.We locked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive, but the others ones were reasonably piced.
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